Jump to contentJump to page navigation: previous page [access key p]/next page [access key n]
documentation.suse.com / Documentação do SUSE Linux Enterprise Server / Security and Hardening Guide / Authentication / Network Authentication with Kerberos
Applies to SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 15 SP2

6 Network Authentication with Kerberos

Kerberos is a network authentication protocol which also provides encryption. This chapter describes how to set up Kerberos and integrate services like LDAP and NFS.

6.1 Conceptual Overview

An open network provides no means of ensuring that a workstation can identify its users properly, except through the usual password mechanisms. In common installations, the user must enter the password each time a service inside the network is accessed. Kerberos provides an authentication method with which a user registers only once and is trusted in the complete network for the rest of the session. To have a secure network, the following requirements must be met:

  • Have all users prove their identity for each desired service and make sure that no one can take the identity of someone else.

  • Make sure that each network server also proves its identity. Otherwise an attacker might be able to impersonate the server and obtain sensitive information transmitted to the server. This concept is called mutual authentication, because the client authenticates to the server and vice versa.

Kerberos helps you meet these requirements by providing strongly encrypted authentication. Only the basic principles of Kerberos are discussed here. For detailed technical instruction, refer to the Kerberos documentation.

6.2 Kerberos Terminology

The following glossary defines some Kerberos terminology.

credential

Users or clients need to present some kind of credentials that authorize them to request services. Kerberos knows two kinds of credentials—tickets and authenticators.

ticket

A ticket is a per-server credential used by a client to authenticate at a server from which it is requesting a service. It contains the name of the server, the client's name, the client's Internet address, a time stamp, a lifetime, and a random session key. All this data is encrypted using the server's key.

authenticator

Combined with the ticket, an authenticator is used to prove that the client presenting a ticket is really the one it claims to be. An authenticator is built using the client's name, the workstation's IP address, and the current workstation's time, all encrypted with the session key known only to the client and the relevant server. An authenticator can only be used once, unlike a ticket. A client can build an authenticator itself.

principal

A Kerberos principal is a unique entity (a user or service) to which it can assign a ticket. A principal consists of the following components:

USER/INSTANCE@REALM
  • primary: The first part of the principal. In the case of users, this is usually the same as the user name.

  • instance (optional): Additional information characterizing the primary. This string is separated from the primary by a /.

    tux@example.org and tux/admin@example.org can both exist on the same Kerberos system and are treated as different principals.

  • realm: Specifies the Kerberos realm. Normally, your realm is your domain name in uppercase letters.

mutual authentication

Kerberos ensures that both client and server can be sure of each other's identity. They share a session key, which they can use to communicate securely.

session key

Session keys are temporary private keys generated by Kerberos. They are known to the client and used to encrypt the communication between the client and the server for which it requested and received a ticket.

replay

Almost all messages sent in a network can be eavesdropped, stolen, and resent. In the Kerberos context, this would be most dangerous if an attacker manages to obtain your request for a service containing your ticket and authenticator. The attacker could then try to resend it (replay) to impersonate you. However, Kerberos implements several mechanisms to deal with this problem.

server or service

Service is used to refer to a specific action to perform. The process behind this action is called a server.

6.3 How Kerberos Works

Kerberos is often called a third-party trusted authentication service, which means all its clients trust Kerberos's judgment of another client's identity. Kerberos keeps a database of all its users and their private keys.

To ensure Kerberos is working correctly, run both the authentication and ticket-granting server on a dedicated machine. Make sure that only the administrator can access this machine physically and over the network. Reduce the (networking) services running on it to the absolute minimum—do not even run sshd.

6.3.1 First Contact

Your first contact with Kerberos is quite similar to any login procedure at a normal networking system. Enter your user name. This piece of information and the name of the ticket-granting service are sent to the authentication server (Kerberos). If the authentication server knows you, it generates a random session key for further use between your client and the ticket-granting server. Now the authentication server prepares a ticket for the ticket-granting server. The ticket contains the following information—all encrypted with a session key only the authentication server and the ticket-granting server know:

  • The names of both, the client and the ticket-granting server

  • The current time

  • A lifetime assigned to this ticket

  • The client's IP address

  • The newly-generated session key

This ticket is then sent back to the client together with the session key, again in encrypted form, but this time the private key of the client is used. This private key is only known to Kerberos and the client, because it is derived from your user password. Now that the client has received this response, you are prompted for your password. This password is converted into the key that can decrypt the package sent by the authentication server. The package is unwrapped and password and key are erased from the workstation's memory. As long as the lifetime given to the ticket used to obtain other tickets does not expire, your workstation can prove your identity.

6.3.2 Requesting a Service

To request a service from any server in the network, the client application needs to prove its identity to the server. Therefore, the application generates an authenticator. An authenticator consists of the following components:

  • The client's principal

  • The client's IP address

  • The current time

  • A checksum (chosen by the client)

All this information is encrypted using the session key that the client has already received for this special server. The authenticator and the ticket for the server are sent to the server. The server uses its copy of the session key to decrypt the authenticator, which gives it all the information needed about the client requesting its service, to compare it to that contained in the ticket. The server checks if the ticket and the authenticator originate from the same client.

Without any security measures implemented on the server side, this stage of the process would be an ideal target for replay attacks. Someone could try to resend a request stolen off the net some time before. To prevent this, the server does not accept any request with a time stamp and ticket received previously. In addition to that, a request with a time stamp differing too much from the time the request is received is ignored.

6.3.3 Mutual Authentication

Kerberos authentication can be used in both directions. It is not only a question of the client being the one it claims to be. The server should also be able to authenticate itself to the client requesting its service. Therefore, it sends an authenticator itself. It adds one to the checksum it received in the client's authenticator and encrypts it with the session key, which is shared between it and the client. The client takes this response as a proof of the server's authenticity and they both start cooperating.

6.3.4 Ticket Granting—Contacting All Servers

Tickets are designed to be used for one server at a time. Therefore, you need to get a new ticket each time you request another service. Kerberos implements a mechanism to obtain tickets for individual servers. This service is called the ticket-granting service. The ticket-granting service is a service (like any other service mentioned before) and uses the same access protocols that have already been outlined. Any time an application needs a ticket that has not already been requested, it contacts the ticket-granting server. This request consists of the following components:

  • The requested principal

  • The ticket-granting ticket

  • An authenticator

Like any other server, the ticket-granting server now checks the ticket-granting ticket and the authenticator. If they are considered valid, the ticket-granting server builds a new session key to be used between the original client and the new server. Then the ticket for the new server is built, containing the following information:

  • The client's principal

  • The server's principal

  • The current time

  • The client's IP address

  • The newly-generated session key

The new ticket has a lifetime, which is either the remaining lifetime of the ticket-granting ticket or the default for the service. The lesser of both values is assigned. The client receives this ticket and the session key, which are sent by the ticket-granting service. But this time the answer is encrypted with the session key that came with the original ticket-granting ticket. The client can decrypt the response without requiring the user's password when a new service is contacted. Kerberos can thus acquire ticket after ticket for the client without bothering the user.

6.4 User View of Kerberos

Ideally, a user only contact with Kerberos happens during login at the workstation. The login process includes obtaining a ticket-granting ticket. At logout, a user's Kerberos tickets are automatically destroyed, which makes it difficult for anyone else to impersonate this user.

The automatic expiration of tickets can lead to a situation when a user's login session lasts longer than the maximum lifespan given to the ticket-granting ticket (a reasonable setting is 10 hours). However, the user can get a new ticket-granting ticket by running kinit. Enter the password again and Kerberos obtains access to desired services without additional authentication. To get a list of all the tickets silently acquired for you by Kerberos, run klist.

Here is a short list of applications that use Kerberos authentication. These applications can be found under /usr/lib/mit/bin or /usr/lib/mit/sbin after installing the package krb5-apps-clients. They all have the full functionality of their common Unix and Linux brothers plus the additional bonus of transparent authentication managed by Kerberos:

  • telnet, telnetd

  • rlogin

  • rsh, rcp, rshd

  • ftp, ftpd

  • ksu

You no longer need to enter your password for using these applications because Kerberos has already proven your identity. ssh, if compiled with Kerberos support, can even forward all the tickets acquired for one workstation to another one. If you use ssh to log in to another workstation, ssh makes sure that the encrypted contents of the tickets are adjusted to the new situation. Simply copying tickets between workstations is not sufficient because the ticket contains workstation-specific information (the IP address). XDM and GDM offer Kerberos support, too. Read more about the Kerberos network applications in Kerberos V5 UNIX User's Guide at https://web.mit.edu/kerberos.

6.5 Installing and Administering Kerberos

A Kerberos environment consists of several components. A key distribution center (KDC) holds the central database with all Kerberos-relevant data. All clients rely on the KDC for proper authentication across the network. Both the KDC and the clients need to be configured to match your setup:

General Preparations

Check your network setup and make sure it meets the minimum requirements outlined in Section 6.5.1, “Kerberos Network Topology”. Choose an appropriate realm for your Kerberos setup, see Section 6.5.2, “Choosing the Kerberos Realms”. Carefully set up the machine that is to serve as the KDC and apply tight security, see Section 6.5.3, “Setting Up the KDC Hardware”. Set up a reliable time source in your network to make sure all tickets contain valid time stamps, see Section 6.5.4, “Configuring Time Synchronization”.

Basic Configuration

Configure the KDC and the clients, see Section 6.5.5, “Configuring the KDC” and Section 6.5.6, “Configuring Kerberos Clients”. Enable remote administration for your Kerberos service, so you do not need physical access to your KDC machine, see Section 6.5.7, “Configuring Remote Kerberos Administration”. Create service principals for every service in your realm, see Section 6.5.8, “Creating Kerberos Service Principals”.

Enabling Kerberos Authentication

Various services in your network can use Kerberos. To add Kerberos password-checking to applications using PAM, proceed as outlined in Section 6.5.9, “Enabling PAM Support for Kerberos”. To configure SSH or LDAP with Kerberos authentication, proceed as outlined in Section 6.5.10, “Configuring SSH for Kerberos Authentication” and Section 6.5.11, “Using LDAP and Kerberos”.

6.5.1 Kerberos Network Topology

Any Kerberos environment must meet the following requirements to be fully functional:

  • Provide a DNS server for name resolution across your network, so clients and servers can locate each other. Refer to Chapter 31, The Domain Name System for information on DNS setup.

  • Provide a time server in your network. Using exact time stamps is crucial to a Kerberos setup, because valid Kerberos tickets must contain correct time stamps. Refer to Chapter 30, Time Synchronization with NTP for information on NTP setup.

  • Provide a key distribution center (KDC) as the center piece of the Kerberos architecture. It holds the Kerberos database. Use the tightest possible security policy on this machine to prevent any attacks on this machine compromising your entire infrastructure.

  • Configure the client machines to use Kerberos authentication.

The following figure depicts a simple example network with only the minimum components needed to build a Kerberos infrastructure. Depending on the size and topology of your deployment, your setup may vary.

Kerberos Network Topology
Figure 6.1: Kerberos Network Topology
Tip
Tip: Configuring Subnet Routing

For a setup similar to the one in Figure 6.1, “Kerberos Network Topology”, configure routing between the two subnets (192.168.1.0/24 and 192.168.2.0/24). Refer to Section 19.4.1.5, “Configuring Routing” for more information on configuring routing with YaST.

6.5.2 Choosing the Kerberos Realms

The domain of a Kerberos installation is called a realm and is identified by a name, such as EXAMPLE.COM or simply ACCOUNTING. Kerberos is case-sensitive, so example.com is actually a different realm than EXAMPLE.COM. Use the case you prefer. It is common practice, however, to use uppercase realm names.

It is also a good idea to use your DNS domain name (or a subdomain, such as ACCOUNTING.EXAMPLE.COM). As shown below, your life as an administrator can be much easier if you configure your Kerberos clients to locate the KDC and other Kerberos services via DNS. To do so, it is helpful if your realm name is a subdomain of your DNS domain name.

Unlike the DNS name space, Kerberos is not hierarchical. So if you have a realm named EXAMPLE.COM with two subrealms named DEVELOPMENT and ACCOUNTING, these subordinate realms do not inherit principals from EXAMPLE.COM. Instead, you would have three separate realms, and you would need to configure cross-realm authentication for each realm, so that users from one realm can interact with servers or other users from another realm.

For the sake of simplicity, let us assume you are setting up only one realm for your entire organization. For the remainder of this section, the realm name EXAMPLE.COM is used in all examples.

6.5.3 Setting Up the KDC Hardware

The first thing required to use Kerberos is a machine that acts as the key distribution center, or KDC for short. This machine holds the entire Kerberos user database with passwords and all information.

The KDC is the most important part of your security infrastructure—if someone breaks into it, all user accounts and all of your infrastructure protected by Kerberos is compromised. An attacker with access to the Kerberos database can impersonate any principal in the database. Tighten security for this machine as much as possible:

  1. Put the server machine into a physically secured location, such as a locked server room to which only a very few people have access.

  2. Do not run any network applications on it except the KDC. This includes servers and clients—for example, the KDC should not import any file systems via NFS or use DHCP to retrieve its network configuration.

  3. Install a minimal system first then check the list of installed packages and remove any unneeded packages. This includes servers, such as inetd, portmap, and CUPS, plus anything X-based. Even installing an SSH server should be considered a potential security risk.

  4. No graphical login is provided on this machine as an X server is a potential security risk. Kerberos provides its own administration interface.

  5. Configure /etc/nsswitch.conf to use only local files for user and group lookup. Change the lines for passwd and group to look like this:

    passwd:         files
    group:          files

    Edit the passwd, group, and shadow files in /etc and remove the lines that start with a + character (these are for NIS lookups).

  6. Disable all user accounts except root's account by editing /etc/shadow and replacing the hashed passwords with * or ! characters.

6.5.4 Configuring Time Synchronization

To use Kerberos successfully, make sure that all system clocks within your organization are synchronized within a certain range. This is important because Kerberos protects against replayed credentials. An attacker might be able to observe Kerberos credentials on the network and reuse them to attack the server. Kerberos employs several defenses to prevent this. One of them is that it puts time stamps into its tickets. A server receiving a ticket with a time stamp that differs from the current time rejects the ticket.

Kerberos allows a certain leeway when comparing time stamps. However, computer clocks can be very inaccurate in keeping time—it is not unheard of for PC clocks to lose or gain half an hour during a week. For this reason, configure all hosts on the network to synchronize their clocks with a central time source.

A simple way to do so is by installing an NTP time server on one machine and having all clients synchronize their clocks with this server. Do this by running an NTP daemon chronyd as a client on all these machines. The KDC itself needs to be synchronized to the common time source as well. Because running an NTP daemon on this machine would be a security risk, it is probably a good idea to do this by running chronyd -q via a cron job. To configure your machine as an NTP client, proceed as outlined in Section 30.1, “Configuring an NTP Client with YaST”.

A different way to secure the time service and still use the NTP daemon is to attach a hardware reference clock to a dedicated NTP server and an additional hardware reference clock to the KDC.

It is also possible to adjust the maximum deviation Kerberos allows when checking time stamps. This value (called clock skew) can be set in the krb5.conf file as described in Section 6.5.6.3, “Adjusting the Clock Skew”.

6.5.5 Configuring the KDC

This section covers the initial configuration and installation of the KDC, including the creation of an administrative principal. This procedure consists of several steps:

  1. Install the RPMs.  On a machine designated as the KDC, install the following software packages: krb5, krb5-server and krb5-client packages.

  2. Adjust the Configuration Files.  The /etc/krb5.conf and /var/lib/kerberos/krb5kdc/kdc.conf configuration files must be adjusted for your scenario. These files contain all information on the KDC. See Section 6.5.5.1, “Configuring the Server”.

  3. Create the Kerberos Database.  Kerberos keeps a database of all principal identifiers and the secret keys of all principals that need to be authenticated. Refer to Section 6.5.5.2, “Setting Up the Database” for details.

  4. Adjust the ACL Files: Add Administrators.  The Kerberos database on the KDC can be managed remotely. To prevent unauthorized principals from tampering with the database, Kerberos uses access control lists. You must explicitly enable remote access for the administrator principal to enable them to manage the database. The Kerberos ACL file is located under /var/lib/kerberos/krb5kdc/kadm5.acl. Refer to Section 6.5.7, “Configuring Remote Kerberos Administration” for details.

  5. Adjust the Kerberos Database: Add Administrators.  You need at least one administrative principal to run and administer Kerberos. This principal must be added before starting the KDC. Refer to Section 6.5.5.3, “Creating a Principal” for details.

  6. Start the Kerberos Daemon.  After the KDC software is installed and properly configured, start the Kerberos daemon to provide Kerberos service for your realm. Refer to Section 6.5.5.4, “Starting the KDC” for details.

  7. Create a Principal for Yourself.  You need a principal for yourself. Refer to Section 6.5.5.3, “Creating a Principal” for details.

6.5.5.1 Configuring the Server

Configuring a Kerberos server is highly variable, dependent on your network architecture, DNS and DHCP configuration, realms, and other considerations. You must have a default realm, and domain- to-realm mappings. The following example demonstrates a minimal configuration. This is not a copy-and-paste example; see https://web.mit.edu/kerberos/krb5-latest/doc/admin/conf_files/index.html for detailed information on Kerberos configuration.

Example 6.1: Example KDC Configuration, /etc/krb5.conf
[libdefaults]
 dns_canonicalize_hostname = false
 rdns = false
 default_realm = example.com
 ticket_lifetime = 24h
 renew_lifetime = 7d

[realms]
  example.com = {
  kdc = kdc.example.com.:88
  admin_server = kdc.example.com
  default_domain = example.com
 }

 [logging]
 kdc = FILE:/var/log/krb5kdc.log
 admin_server = FILE:/var/log/kadmind.log
 default = SYSLOG:NOTICE:DAEMON

[domain_realm]
 .example.com = example.com
 example.com = example.com

6.5.5.2 Setting Up the Database

Your next step is to initialize the database where Kerberos keeps all information about principals. Set up the database master key, which is used to protect the database from accidental disclosure (in particular if it is backed up to tape). The master key is derived from a pass phrase and is stored in a file called the stash file. This is so you do not need to enter the password every time the KDC is restarted. Make sure that you choose a good pass phrase, such as a sentence from a book opened to a random page.

When you make tape backups of the Kerberos database (/var/lib/kerberos/krb5kdc/principal), do not back up the stash file (which is in /var/lib/kerberos/krb5kdc/.k5.EXAMPLE.COM). Otherwise, everyone able to read the tape could also decrypt the database. Therefore, keep a copy of the pass phrase in a safe or some other secure location, because you will need it to restore your database from backup tape after a crash.

To create the stash file and the database, run:

> sudo kdb5_util create -r EXAMPLE.COM -s

You will see the following output:

Initializing database '/var/lib/kerberos/krb5kdc/principal' for realm 'EXAMPLE.COM',
master key name 'K/M@EXAMPLE.COM'
You will be prompted for the database Master Password.
It is important that you NOT FORGET this password.
Enter KDC database master key:  1
Re-enter KDC database master key to verify:  2

1

Type the master password.

2

Type the password again.

To verify, use the list command:

> kadmin.local

kadmin> listprincs

You will see several principals in the database, which are for internal use by Kerberos:

K/M@EXAMPLE.COM
kadmin/admin@EXAMPLE.COM
kadmin/changepw@EXAMPLE.COM
krbtgt/EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM

6.5.5.3 Creating a Principal

Create two Kerberos principals for yourself: one normal principal for everyday work and one for administrative tasks relating to Kerberos. Assuming your login name is suzanne, proceed as follows:

> kadmin.local

kadmin> ank suzanne

You will see the following output:

suzanne@EXAMPLE.COM's Password: 1
Verifying password: 2

1

Type >suzanne's password.

1

Type suzanne's password again.

Next, create another principal named suzanne/admin by typing ank suzanne/admin at the kadmin prompt. The admin suffixed to your user name is a role. Later, use this role when administering the Kerberos database. A user can have several roles for different purposes. Roles act like completely different accounts that have similar names.

6.5.5.4 Starting the KDC

Start the KDC daemon and the kadmin daemon. To start the daemons manually, enter:

> sudo systemctl start krb5kdc
sudo systemctl start kadmind

Also make sure that the services KDC (krb5kdc) and kadmind (kadmind) are started by default when the server machine is rebooted. Enable them by entering:

> sudo systemctl enable krb5kdc kadmind

or by using the YaST Services Manager.

6.5.6 Configuring Kerberos Clients

When the supporting infrastructure is in place (DNS, NTP) and the KDC has been properly configured and started, configure the client machines. To configure a Kerberos client, use one of the two manual approaches described below.

When configuring Kerberos, there are two approaches you can take—static configuration in the /etc/krb5.conf file or dynamic configuration with DNS. With DNS configuration, Kerberos applications try to locate the KDC services using DNS records. With static configuration, add the host names of your KDC server to krb5.conf (and update the file whenever you move the KDC or reconfigure your realm in other ways).

DNS-based configuration is generally a lot more flexible and the amount of configuration work per machine is a lot less. However, it requires that your realm name is either the same as your DNS domain or a subdomain of it. Configuring Kerberos via DNS also creates a security issue: An attacker can seriously disrupt your infrastructure through your DNS (by shooting down the name server, spoofing DNS records, etc.). However, this amounts to a denial of service at worst. A similar scenario applies to the static configuration case unless you enter IP addresses in krb5.conf instead of host names.

6.5.6.1 Static Configuration

One way to configure Kerberos is to edit /etc/krb5.conf. The file installed by default contains various sample entries. Erase all of these entries before starting. krb5.conf is made up of several sections (stanzas), each introduced by the section name in brackets like [this].

To configure your Kerberos clients, add the following stanza to krb5.conf (where kdc.example.com is the host name of the KDC):

[libdefaults]
        default_realm = EXAMPLE.COM

[realms]
        EXAMPLE.COM = {
                kdc = kdc.example.com
                admin_server = kdc.example.com
        }

The default_realm line sets the default realm for Kerberos applications. If you have several realms, add additional statements to the [realms] section.

Also add a statement to this file that tells applications how to map host names to a realm. For example, when connecting to a remote host, the Kerberos library needs to know in which realm this host is located. This must be configured in the [domain_realms] section:

[domain_realm]
.example.com = EXAMPLE.COM
www.example.org = EXAMPLE.COM

This tells the library that all hosts in the example.com DNS domains are in the EXAMPLE.COM Kerberos realm. In addition, one external host named www.example.org should also be considered a member of the EXAMPLE.COM realm.

6.5.6.2 DNS-Based Configuration

DNS-based Kerberos configuration makes heavy use of SRV records. See (RFC2052) A DNS RR for specifying the location of services at https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2052.

The name of an SRV record, as far as Kerberos is concerned, is always in the format _service._proto.realm, where realm is the Kerberos realm. Domain names in DNS are case-insensitive, so case-sensitive Kerberos realms would break when using this configuration method. _service is a service name (different names are used when trying to contact the KDC or the password service, for example). _proto can be either _udp or _tcp, but not all services support both protocols.

The data portion of SRV resource records consists of a priority value, a weight, a port number, and a host name. The priority defines the order in which hosts should be tried (lower values indicate a higher priority). The weight value is there to support some sort of load balancing among servers of equal priority. You probably do not need any of this, so it is okay to set these to zero.

MIT Kerberos currently looks up the following names when looking for services:

_kerberos

This defines the location of the KDC daemon (the authentication and ticket granting server). Typical records look like this:

_kerberos._udp.EXAMPLE.COM.  IN  SRV    0 0 88 kdc.example.com.
_kerberos._tcp.EXAMPLE.COM.  IN  SRV    0 0 88 kdc.example.com.
_kerberos-adm

This describes the location of the remote administration service. Typical records look like this:

_kerberos-adm._tcp.EXAMPLE.COM. IN  SRV    0 0 749 kdc.example.com.

Because kadmind does not support UDP, there should be no _udp record.

As with the static configuration file, there is a mechanism to inform clients that a specific host is in the EXAMPLE.COM realm, even if it is not part of the example.com DNS domain. This can be done by attaching a TXT record to _kerberos.host_name, as shown here:

_kerberos.www.example.org.  IN TXT "EXAMPLE.COM"

6.5.6.3 Adjusting the Clock Skew

The clock skew is the tolerance for accepting tickets with time stamps that do not exactly match the host's system clock. Usually, the clock skew is set to 300 seconds (five minutes). This means a ticket can have a time stamp somewhere between five minutes behind and five minutes ahead of the server's clock.

When using NTP to synchronize all hosts, you can reduce this value to about one minute. The clock skew value can be set in /etc/krb5.conf like this:

[libdefaults]
        clockskew = 60

6.5.7 Configuring Remote Kerberos Administration

To be able to add and remove principals from the Kerberos database without accessing the KDC's console directly, tell the Kerberos administration server which principals are allowed to do what by editing /var/lib/kerberos/krb5kdc/kadm5.acl. The ACL (access control list) file allows you to specify privileges with a precise degree of control. For details, refer to the manual page with man 8 kadmind.

For now, grant yourself the privilege to administer the database by putting the following line into the file:

suzanne/admin              *

Replace the user name suzanne with your own. Restart kadmind for the change to take effect.

You should now be able to perform Kerberos administration tasks remotely using the kadmin tool. First, obtain a ticket for your admin role and use that ticket when connecting to the kadmin server:

> kadmin -p suzanne/admin
Authenticating as principal suzanne/admin@EXAMPLE.COM with password.
Password for suzanne/admin@EXAMPLE.COM:
kadmin:  getprivs
current privileges: GET ADD MODIFY DELETE
kadmin:

Using the getprivs command, verify which privileges you have. The list shown above is the full set of privileges.

As an example, modify the principal suzanne:

> kadmin -p suzanne/admin
Authenticating as principal suzanne/admin@EXAMPLE.COM with password.
Password for suzanne/admin@EXAMPLE.COM:

kadmin:  getprinc suzanne
Principal: suzanne@EXAMPLE.COM
Expiration date: [never]
Last password change: Wed Jan 12 17:28:46 CET 2005
Password expiration date: [none]
Maximum ticket life: 0 days 10:00:00
Maximum renewable life: 7 days 00:00:00
Last modified: Wed Jan 12 17:47:17 CET 2005 (admin/admin@EXAMPLE.COM)
Last successful authentication: [never]
Last failed authentication: [never]
Failed password attempts: 0
Number of keys: 2
Key: vno 1, Triple DES cbc mode with HMAC/sha1, no salt
Key: vno 1, DES cbc mode with CRC-32, no salt
Attributes:
Policy: [none]

kadmin:  modify_principal -maxlife "8 hours" suzanne
Principal "suzanne@EXAMPLE.COM" modified.
kadmin:  getprinc suzanne
Principal: suzanne@EXAMPLE.COM
Expiration date: [never]
Last password change: Wed Jan 12 17:28:46 CET 2005
Password expiration date: [none]
Maximum ticket life: 0 days 08:00:00
Maximum renewable life: 7 days 00:00:00
Last modified: Wed Jan 12 17:59:49 CET 2005 (suzanne/admin@EXAMPLE.COM)
Last successful authentication: [never]
Last failed authentication: [never]
Failed password attempts: 0
Number of keys: 2
Key: vno 1, Triple DES cbc mode with HMAC/sha1, no salt
Key: vno 1, DES cbc mode with CRC-32, no salt
Attributes:
Policy: [none]
kadmin:

This changes the maximum ticket life time to eight hours. For more information about the kadmin command and the options available, see the krb5-doc package or refer to the man 8 kadmin manual page.

6.5.8 Creating Kerberos Service Principals

So far, only user credentials have been discussed. However, Kerberos-compatible services usually need to authenticate themselves to the client user, too. Therefore, special service principals must be in the Kerberos database for each service offered in the realm. For example, if ldap.example.com offers an LDAP service, you need a service principal, ldap/ldap.example.com@EXAMPLE.COM, to authenticate this service to all clients.

The naming convention for service principals is SERVICE/HOSTNAME@REALM, where HOSTNAME is the host's fully qualified host name.

Valid service descriptors are:

Service Descriptor

Service

host

Telnet, RSH, SSH

nfs

NFSv4 (with Kerberos support)

HTTP

HTTP (with Kerberos authentication)

imap

IMAP

pop

POP3

ldap

LDAP

Service principals are similar to user principals, but have significant differences. The main difference between a user principal and a service principal is that the key of the former is protected by a password. When a user obtains a ticket-granting ticket from the KDC, they needs to type their password, so Kerberos can decrypt the ticket. It would be inconvenient for system administrators to obtain new tickets for the SSH daemon every eight hours or so.

Instead, the key required to decrypt the initial ticket for the service principal is extracted by the administrator from the KDC only once and stored in a local file called the keytab. Services such as the SSH daemon read this key and use it to obtain new tickets automatically, when needed. The default keytab file resides in /etc/krb5.keytab.

To create a host service principal for jupiter.example.com enter the following commands during your kadmin session:

> kadmin -p suzanne/admin
Authenticating as principal suzanne/admin@EXAMPLE.COM with password.
Password for suzanne/admin@EXAMPLE.COM:
kadmin:  addprinc -randkey host/jupiter.example.com
WARNING: no policy specified for host/jupiter.example.com@EXAMPLE.COM;
defaulting to no policy
Principal "host/jupiter.example.com@EXAMPLE.COM" created.

Instead of setting a password for the new principal, the -randkey flag tells kadmin to generate a random key. This is used here because no user interaction is wanted for this principal. It is a server account for the machine.

Finally, extract the key and store it in the local keytab file /etc/krb5.keytab. This file is owned by the superuser, so you must be root to execute the next command in the kadmin shell:

kadmin:  ktadd host/jupiter.example.com
Entry for principal host/jupiter.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type Triple
DES cbc mode with HMAC/sha1 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab.
Entry for principal host/jupiter.example.com with kvno 3, encryption type DES
cbc mode with CRC-32 added to keytab WRFILE:/etc/krb5.keytab.
kadmin:

When completed, make sure that you destroy the admin ticket obtained with kinit above with kdestroy.

6.5.9 Enabling PAM Support for Kerberos

Warning
Warning: Incomplete Configuration Locks Users Out

An incomplete Kerberos configuration may completely lock you out of your system, including the root user. To prevent this, add the ignore_unknown_principals directive to the pam_krb5 module after you have added the pam_krb5 module to the existing PAM configuration files as described below.

> sudo pam-config --add --krb5-ignore_unknown_principals

This will direct the pam_krb5 module to ignore some errors that would otherwise cause the account phase to fail.

SUSE® Linux Enterprise Server comes with a PAM module named pam_krb5, which supports Kerberos login and password update. This module can be used by applications such as console login, su, and graphical login applications like GDM. That is, it can be used in all cases where the user enters a password and expects the authenticating application to obtain an initial Kerberos ticket on their behalf. To configure PAM support for Kerberos, use the following command:

> sudo pam-config --add --krb5

The above command adds the pam_krb5 module to the existing PAM configuration files and makes sure it is called in the right order. To make precise adjustments to the way in which pam_krb5 is used, edit the file /etc/krb5.conf and add default applications to PAM. For details, refer to the manual page with man 5 pam_krb5.

The pam_krb5 module was specifically not designed for network services that accept Kerberos tickets as part of user authentication. This is an entirely different matter, and is discussed below.

6.5.10 Configuring SSH for Kerberos Authentication

OpenSSH supports Kerberos authentication in both protocol version 1 and 2. In version 1, there are special protocol messages to transmit Kerberos tickets. Version 2 does not use Kerberos directly anymore, but relies on GSSAPI, the General Security Services API. This is a programming interface that is not specific to Kerberos—it was designed to hide the peculiarities of the underlying authentication system, be it Kerberos, a public-key authentication system like SPKM, or others. However, the included GSSAPI library only supports Kerberos.

To use sshd with Kerberos authentication, edit /etc/ssh/sshd_config and set the following options:

# These are for protocol version 1
#
# KerberosAuthentication yes
# KerberosTicketCleanup yes

# These are for version 2 - better to use this
GSSAPIAuthentication yes
GSSAPICleanupCredentials yes

Then restart your SSH daemon using sudo systemctl restart sshd.

To use Kerberos authentication with protocol version 2, enable it on the client side as well. Do this either in the system-wide configuration file /etc/ssh/ssh_config or on a per-user level by editing ~/.ssh/config. In both cases, add the option GSSAPIAuthentication yes.

You should now be able to connect using Kerberos authentication. Use klist to verify that you have a valid ticket, then connect to the SSH server. To force SSH protocol version 1, specify the -1 option on the command line.

Tip
Tip: Additional Information

The file /usr/share/doc/packages/openssh/README.kerberos discusses the interaction of OpenSSH and Kerberos in more detail.

Tip
Tip: Additional Directives for Protocol Version 2

The GSSAPIKeyExchange mechanism (RFC 4462) is supported. This directive specifies how host keys are exchanged. For more information, see the sshd_config manual page (man sshd_config).

6.5.11 Using LDAP and Kerberos

While Kerberos provides authentication, LDAP is used for authorization and identification. Both services can work together.

For secure connections,389 Directory Server supports different ways of encrypting data: SSL/TLS connections, Start TLS connections, and SASL authentication. Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL) is a network protocol designed for authentication. The SASL implementation used on SUSE Linux Enterprise Server is cyrus-sasl. Kerberos authentication is performed through GSS-API (General Security Services API), provided by the cyrus-sasl-gssapi package. Using GSS-API, 389 Directory Server uses Kerberos tickets to authenticate sessions and encrypt data.

With the SASL framework you can use different mechanisms to authenticate a user to the server. In Kerberos, authentication is always mutual. This means that not only have you authenticated yourself to the 389 Directory Server, but also the 389 Directory Server has authenticated itself to you. In particular, this means communication is with the desired server, rather than with a random service set up by an attacker.

To enable Kerberos to bind to the 389 Directory Server, create a principal ldap/ldap.example.com and add that to the keytab. The credentials used by the 389 Directory Server to authenticate are given to other servers by the keytab. 389 Directory Server assigns a keytab through the KRB5_KTNAME environment variable.

To set the variable, proceed as follows:

  1. > sudo systemctl edit dirsrv@INSTANCE

    If you used the default name for the 389 Directory Server instance, replace INSTANCE with localhost.

  2. Add the following:

    [Service]
      Environment=KRB5_KTNAME=/etc/dirsrv/slapd-INSTANCE/krb5.keytab
  3. The keytab file needs to be readable by the account under which the 389 Directory Server runs (for example, dirserv):

    > sudo chown dirsrv:dirsrv /etc/dirsrv/slapd-INSTANCE/krb5.keytab
    > sudo chmod 600 /etc/dirsrv/slapd-INSTANCE/krb5.keytab

6.5.11.1 Using Kerberos Authentication with LDAP

To obtain and cache an initial ticket-granting ticket, use the principal that has been created in Section 6.5.5.3, “Creating a Principal”:

> kinit suzanne@EXAMPLE.COM

To check if GSSAPI authentication works, run:

> ldapwhoami -Y GSSAPI -H ldap://ldapkdc.example.com
dn: uid=testuser,ou=People,dc=example,dc=com
    

GSSAPI uses the ccache to authenticate the user to the 389 Directory Server without the user's password.

6.5.11.2 Configuring SASL Identity Mapping

When processing a SASL bind request, the 389 Directory Server maps the SASL authentication ID (used to authenticate to the Directory Server) with an LDAP entry stored within the server. When using Kerberos, the SASL user ID usually has the following format: userid@REALM, such as tux@example.com. This ID must be converted into the DN of the user's Directory Server entry, such as uid=tux,ou=people,dc=example,dc=com. The 389 Directory Server comes with some default maps for most common configurations. However, you can create customized maps. Procedure 6.1, “Managing Maps” shows how to list and display a map, how to delete a map and how to create a custom map.

Procedure 6.1: Managing Maps
  1. To list the existing SASL maps:

    > dsconf INSTANCE sasl list
    Kerberos uid mapping
    rfc 2829 dn syntax
    rfc 2829u syntax
    uid mapping
  2. To display a map:

    > sudo dsconf INSTANCE sasl get "Kerberos uid mapping"
    dn: cn=Kerberos uid mapping,cn=mapping,cn=sasl,cn=config
    cn: Kerberos uid mapping
    nsSaslMapBaseDNTemplate: dc=\2,dc=\3
    nsSaslMapFilterTemplate: (uid=\1)
    nsSaslMapRegexString: \(.*\)@\(.*\)\.\(.*\)
    objectClass: top
    objectClass: nsSaslMapping
  3. The default map only works if your dc has two components. To delete the map (if it does not work for you):

    > sudo dsconf INSTANCE sasl delete "Kerberos uid mapping"
    Deleting SaslMapping cn=Kerberos uid mapping,cn=mapping,cn=sasl,cn=config :
    Successfully deleted cn=Kerberos uid mapping,cn=mapping,cn=sasl,cn=config
  4. To create a new map:

    > sudo dsconf localhost sasl create --cn=bhgssapi --nsSaslMapRegexString "\
    (.*\)@EXAMPLE.NET.DE" --nsSaslMapBaseDNTemplate="dc=example,dc=net,dc=de" --nsSaslMapFilterTemplate="(uid=\1)"
    > sudo Enter value for nsSaslMapPriority :
    Successfully created bhgssapi
  5. Display the newly created map with:

    > sudo dsconf localhost sasl get "bhgssapi"
    dn: cn=bhgssapi,cn=mapping,cn=sasl,cn=config
    cn: bhgssapi
    nsSaslMapBaseDNTemplate: dc=example,dc=net,dc=de
    nsSaslMapFilterTemplate: (uid=\1)
    nsSaslMapPriority: 100
    nsSaslMapRegexString: \(.*\)@EXAMPLE.NET.DE
    objectClass: top
    objectClass: nsSaslMapping

    With this, you can check only the users of a specific realm and remap them to a different dc base. As you can see, the new map has 3 dc components, so the default maps would not have worked for this realm (EXAMPLE.NET.DE), only for a realm like EXAMPLE.NET.

6.6 Setting up Kerberos using LDAP and Kerberos Client

YaST includes the module LDAP and Kerberos Client that helps define authentication scenarios involving either LDAP or Kerberos.

It can also be used to join Kerberos and LDAP separately. However, in many such cases, using this module may not be the first choice, such as for joining Active Directory (which uses a combination of LDAP and Kerberos). For more information, see Section 4.1, “Configuring an Authentication Client with YaST”.

Start the module by selecting Network Services › LDAP and Kerberos Client.

LDAP and Kerberos Client Window
Figure 6.2: LDAP and Kerberos Client Window

To configure a Kerberos client, follow the procedure below:

  1. In the window LDAP and Kerberos Client, click Change Settings.

    Choose the tab Authentication via Kerberos.

    Tab Authentication via Kerberos
  2. Click Add Realm.

  3. In the appearing dialog, specify the correct Realm name. Usually, the realm name is an uppercase version of the domain name. Additionally, you can specify the following:

    • To apply mappings from the realm name to the domain name, activate Map Domain Name to the Realm and/or Map Wildcard Domain Name to the Realm.

    • You can specify the Host Name of Administration Server, the Host Name of Master Key Distribution Server and additional Key Distribution Centers.

      All of these items are optional if they can be automatically discovered via the SRV and TXT records in DNS.

    • To manually map Principals to local user names, use Custom Mappings of Principal Names to User Names.

      You can also use auth_to_local rules to supply such mappings using Custom Rules for Mapping Principal Names to User Names. For more information about using such rules, see the official documentation at https://web.mit.edu/kerberos/krb5-current/doc/admin/conf_files/krb5_conf.html#realms and an article at https://community.hortonworks.com/articles/14463/auth-to-local-rules-syntax.html.

    Continue with OK.

  4. To add more realms, repeat from Step 2.

  5. Enable Kerberos users logging in and creation of home directories by activating Allow Kerberos Users to Authenticate and Automatically Create Home Directory.

  6. If you left empty the optional text boxes in Step 3, make sure to enable automatic discovery of realms and key distribution centers by activating Use DNS TXT Record to Discover Realms and Use DNS SRV Record to Discover KDC Servers.

  7. You can additionally activate the following:

    • Allow Insecure Encryption (for Windows NT) allows the encryption types listed as weak at https://web.mit.edu/kerberos/krb5-current/doc/admin/conf_files/kdc_conf.html#encryption-types.

    • Allow KDC on Other Networks to Issue Authentication Tickets allows forwarding of tickets.

    • Allow Kerberos-Enabled Services to Take on The Identity Of a User allows the use of proxies between the computer of the user and the key distribution center.

    • Issue Address-Less Tickets for Computers Behind NAT allows granting tickets to users behind networks using network address translation.

  8. To set up allowed encryption types and define the name of the keytab file which lists the names of principals and their encrypted keys, use the Extended Options.

  9. Finish with OK and Finish.

    YaST may now install extra packages.

To check if the setup of the Kerberos back-end inside of LDAP was successful, proceed as follows:

  1. Directly access the KDC database on the host of the 389 Directory Server:

    > sudo kadmin.local
  2. List the principals:

    kadmin.local > listprincs
  3. Create a principal:

    kadmin.local > ank admin@EXAMPLE.COM

    It is written to the 389 Directory Server database.

  4. > sudo ldapsearch -D 'cn=Directory Manager' -w password -b 'cn=EXAMPLE.COM,cn=kdc,dc=example,dc=com' -H ldaps://localhost
  5. Check if the principal data from Kerberos is stored in LDAP. If yes, you get an output similar to the following:

    > sudo admin@EXAMPLE.COM, EXAMPLE.COM, kdc, example.com
    dn: krbprincipalname=admin@EXAMPLE.COM,cn=EXAMPLE.COM,cn=kdc,dc=example,dc=com
    krbLoginFailedCount: 0
    krbPrincipalName: admin@EXAMPLE.COM
    krbPrincipalKey:: MIG2oAMCAQGhAwIBAaIDAgEBowMCAQGkgZ8wgZwwVKAHMAWgAwIBAKFJMEeg
     AwIBEqFABD4gAKXAsMf7oV5vITzV5OpclhdomR+SdIRCkouS2GeNF9lVgxjT29RpnipNlCjgGOkpr
     93d0nh82WhrrAF6bzBEoAcwBaADAgEAoTkwN6ADAgERoTAELhAAFiGRiI0yUjBteGHhTB6ESJYsYJ
     WxFa4UslUNZD1GEQGlZ/0nltLsyD2ytGc=
    krbLastPwdChange: 20190702032802Z
    krbExtraData:: AAJCzxpdcm9vdC9hZG1pbkBFWEFNUExFLkNPTQA=
    krbExtraData:: AAgBAA==
    objectClass: krbprincipal
    objectClass: krbprincipalaux
    objectClass: krbTicketPolicyAux
    objectClass: top
  6. Obtain and cache an initial ticket-granting ticket:

    > sudo kinit admin@EXAMPLE.COM
  7. Display a list of currently cached Kerberos tickets:

    > sudo klist
    Ticket cache: DIR::/run/user/0/krb5cc/tkt
    Default principal: admin@EXAMPLE.COM
    
    Valid starting     Expires            Service principal
    07/02/19 13:29:04  07/03/19 13:29:04  krbtgt/EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM

6.7 Kerberos and NFS

Most NFS servers can export file systems using any combination of the default trust the network form of security, known as sec=sys, and three different levels of Kerberos-based security, sec=krb5, sec=krb5i, and sec=krb5p. The sec option is set as a mount option on the client. It is often the case that the NFS service will first be configured and used with sec=sys, and then Kerberos can be imposed afterwards. In this case it is likely that the server will be configured to support both sec=sys and one of the Kerberos levels, and then after all clients have transitioned, the sec=sys support will be removed, thus achieving true security. The transition to Kerberos should be fairly transparent if done in an orderly manner. However there is one subtle detail of NFS behavior that works differently when Kerberos is used, and the implications of this need to be understood and possibly addressed. See Section 6.7.1, “Group Membership”.

The three Kerberos levels indicate different levels of security. With more security comes a need for more processor power to encrypt and decrypt messages. Choosing the right balance is an important consideration when planning a roll-out of Kerberos for NFS.

krb5 provides only authentication. The server can know who sent a request, and the client can know that the server sent a reply. No security is provided for the content of the request or reply, so an attacker with physical network access could transform the request or reply, or both, in various ways to deceive either server or client. They cannot directly read or change any file that the authenticated user could not read or change, but almost anything is theoretically possible.

krb5i adds integrity checks to all messages. With krb5i, an attacker cannot modify any request or reply, but they can view all the data exchanged, and so could discover the content of any file that is read.

krb5p adds privacy to the protocol. As well as reliable authentication and integrity checking, messages are fully encrypted so an attacker can only know that messages were exchanged between client and server, and cannot extract other information directly from the message. Whether information can be extracted from message timing is a separate question that Kerberos does not address.

6.7.1 Group Membership

The one behavioral difference between sec=sys and the various Kerberos security levels that might be visible is related to group membership. In Unix and Linux, each file system access comes from a process that is owned by a particular user and has a particular group owner and several supplemental groups. Access rights to files can vary based on the owner and the various groups.

With sec=sys, the user-id, group-id, and a list of up to 16 supplementary groups are sent to the server in each request.

If a user is a member of more than 16 supplementary groups, the extra groups are lost and some files may not be accessible over NFS that the user would normally expect to have access to. For this reason, most sites that use NFS find a way to limit all users to at most 16 supplementary groups.

If the user runs the newgrp command or runs a set-group-id program, either of which can change the list of groups they are a member of, these changes take effect immediately and provide different accesses over NFS.

With Kerberos, group information is not sent in requests. Only the user is identified (using a Kerberos principal), and the server performs a lookup to determine the user ID and group list for that principal. This means that if the user is a member of more than 16 groups, all of these group memberships will be used in determining file access permissions. However it also means that if the user changes a group-id on the client in some way, the server will not notice the change and will not take it into account in determining access rights.

Usually the improvement of having access to more groups brings a real benefit, and the loss of not being able to change groups is not noticed as it is not widely used. A site administrator considering the use of Kerberos should be aware of the difference though and ensure that it will not actually cause problems.

6.7.2 Performance and Scalability

Using Kerberos for security requires extra CPU power for encrypting and decrypting messages. How much extra CPU power is required and whether the difference is noticeable will vary with different hardware and different applications. If the server or client are already saturating the available CPU power, it is likely that a performance drop will be measurable when switching from sec=sys to Kerberos. If there is spare CPU capacity available, it is quite possible that the transition will not result in any throughput change. The only way to be sure how much impact the use of Kerberos will have is to test your load on your hardware.

The only configuration options that might reduce the load will also reduce the quality of the protection offered. sec=krb5 should produce noticeably less load than sec=krb5p but, as discussed above, it does not produce very strong security. Similarly it is possible to adjust the list of ciphers that Kerberos can choose from, and this might change the CPU requirement. However the defaults are carefully chosen and should not be changed without similar careful consideration.

The other possible performance issue when configuring NFS to use Kerberos involves availability of the Kerberos authentication servers, known as the KDC or Key Distribution Center.

The use of NFS adds load to such servers to the same degree that adding the use of Kerberos for any other services adds some load. Every time a given user (Kerberos principal) establishes a session with a service, for example by accessing files exported by a particular NFS server, the client needs to negotiate with the KDC. Once a session key has been negotiated, the client server can communicate without further help for many hours, depending on details of the Kerberos configuration, particularly the ticket_lifetime setting.

The concerns most likely to affect the provisioning of Kerberos KDC servers are availability and peak usage.

As with other core services such as DNS, LDAP or similar name-lookup services, having two servers that are reasonably "close" to every client provides good availability for modest resources. Kerberos allows for multiple KDC servers with flexible models for database propagation, so distributing servers as needed around campuses, buildings, and even cabinets is fairly straightforward. The best mechanism to ensure each client finds a nearby Kerberos server is to use split-horizon DNS with each building (or similar) getting different details from the DNS server. If this is not possible, then managing the /etc/krb5.conf file to be different at different locations is a suitable alternative.

As access to the Kerberos KDC is infrequent, load is only likely to be a problem at peak times. If thousands of people all log in between 9:00 and 9:05, then the servers will receive many more requests-per-minute than they might in the middle of the night. The load on the Kerberos server is likely to be more than that on an LDAP server, but not orders of magnitude more. A sensible guideline is to provision Kerberos replicas in the same manner that you provision LDAP replicas, and then monitor performance to determine if demand ever exceeds capacity.

6.7.3 Master KDC, Multiple Domains, and Trust Relationships

One service of the Kerberos KDC that is not easily distributed is the handling of updates, such as password changes and new user creation. These must happen at a single master KDC.

These updates are not likely to happen with such frequency that any significant load will be generated, but availability could be an issue. It can be annoying to create a new user or change a password, and the master KDC on the other side of the world is temporarily unavailable.

When an organization is geographically distributed and has a policy of handling administration tasks locally at each site, it can be beneficial to create multiple Kerberos domains, one for each administrative center. Each domain would then have its own master KDC which would be geographically local. Users in one domain can still get access to resources in another domain by setting up trust relationships between domains.

The easiest arrangement for multiple domains is to have a global domain (for example, EXAMPLE.COM) and various local domains (for example, ASIA.EXAMPLE.COM, EUROPE.EXAMPLE.COM). If the global domain is configured to trust each local domain, and each local domain is configured to trust the global domain, then fully transitive trust is available between any pair of domains, and any principal can establish a secure connection with any service. Ensuring appropriate access rights to resources, for example files provided by that service, will be dependent on the user name lookup service used, and the functionality of the NFS file server, and is beyond the scope of this document.

6.8 For More Information

The official site of MIT Kerberos is https://web.mit.edu/kerberos. There, find links to any other relevant resource concerning Kerberos, including Kerberos installation, user, and administration guides.

The book Kerberos—A Network Authentication System by Brian Tung (ISBN 0-201-37924-4) offers extensive information.